Why partial factor of safety of concrete s greater than that of steel? by · October 5, 2022 Steel reinforcements are manufactured in highly controlled environments with a stricter standard of quality control, whereas the concrete mix is prepared in environments (RMC plant/site) where a great degree of variability can be expected, i.e., the environments are not controlled enough to ensure that the same quality of concrete is produced in every batch, and the consistency of quality is usually lesser than that of steel (reinforcement).

Is factor of safety for steel and concrete same?

Factors Affecting Factor of Safety (FoS) – The structure’s safety depends on two principal design factors, load and material strength, which are not a function of each other. Hence, two different factors, one for load and the other for material strength, are used.

The factor of safety for steel is lower as compared to concrete. Because concrete is a brittle material and relatively less reliable than steel and steel is manufactured in industry. So, In steel, the quality control is better than in concrete (as it is prepared at the site with different atmospheric conditions).

What is the partial safety factor for steel and concrete?

​​ Partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5. Partial safety factor for steel = 1.15 ​

What is the partial safety factor for concrete and steel in limit state method?

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Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements of the structure before failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will thus ensure that they will not reach limit states and will not become unfit for the use for which they are intended. In limit state design, partial safety factors are applied to both loads and material stresses. Structures should be designed with loads obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads with suitable factors of safety depending on the nature of loads or their combinations, and the limit state being considered.

These factors of safety for loads are termed as partial safety factors (γ f ) for loads. Thus, the design loads are calculated as (Design load F d ) = (Characteristic load (F)) x (Partial safety factor for load) The characteristic strength of a material as obtained from the statistical approach is the strength of that material below which not more than five per cent of the test results are expected to fall.

However, such characteristic strengths may differ from sample to sample also. Accordingly, the design strength is calculated dividing the characteristic strength further by the partial safety factor for the material (γ m ), where γ m depends on the material and the limit state being considered. \(\rm Design\: }strength }\:of }\:material = \frac }\:strength }\:of }\:material}} }\:factor }\:of\:safety\:of\:material}}\) Partial factor of safety for concrete and steel should be taken as 1.5 and 1.15, respectively when assessing the strength of the structures or structural members employing limit state of collapse.

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What is the partial safety factor of the material considered for concrete?

Answer (Detailed Solution Below) – Option 3 : 1.50 Free Logical Reasoning Mock Test 20 Questions 20 Marks 20 Mins Explanation: As per IS 456:2000, the partial factor of safety for concrete is taken as 1.5. A higher factor of safety is required for concrete owing to uncertainty in preparation, transportation, and placement in concreting. (iv) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored. (v) The design stresses of the reinforcement are derived from the representative stress-strain curves as shown in the figure below: Partial safety factor for steel and concrete should be considered as 1.15 and 1.5 respectively. (vi) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less than \(\frac }} }} + 0.002\), where f y is the characteristic strength of steel and E s = modulus of elasticity of steel.

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What is the difference between concrete and steel?

Concrete is a conventionally used material for construction while steel is now gaining momentum for its flexibility and reduced construction time. Both concrete and steel framed structures have environmental issues associated with their use, including a high embodied energy in their manufacture,

• Concrete has some advantages; waste materials can be included within the mix, such as GGBS ( Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag ) and PFA ( Pulverised Fuel Ash ).
• In addition, moves are being made to assess the potential of using recycled concrete, however, issues such as moisture content and material variability dictate that it is economically unviable.

Steel, while having a high lead time, is known for its fast erection on site, However, steel needs fire protection whereas within concrete this is inherent. Prefabrication of steel can allow thin film intumescent coatings to be applied offsite, Efficiency within concrete construction is being improved by the adoption of hybrid solutions and innovations in formwork such as self-climbing forms,

• The use of precast concrete construction can also help to significantly reduce build time particularly where vertical elements are considered to be the main limitation.
• Sacrificial probes can be integrated within concrete to provide strength determination at an early age and this is likely to help further improve construction methodologies,

Steel, being fast to erect, can allow the building to be occupied sooner. In addition, reduced labour costs are possible through dryness of form in comparison with concrete. The construction of a steel framework is comparatively lightweight, as much as sixty percent lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame solution which might allow for a less expensive foundation system,

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What is the relation between steel and concrete?

FOCAL POINTS OF STEEL AND CONCRETE: –

• Steel is a flexible material though concrete is a fragile material.
• Steel has high elasticity and concrete has high compressive strength.
• Concrete structures can undergo sudden failure as it will be a fragile disappointment though steel structures don’t experience unexpected disappointment as they give indications of disappointment ahead of time.
• Solid structures are more strong than steel structures.

Concrete is a structure material produced using a blend of broken stone or rock, sand, concrete, and water, which can be spread or filled shape and structures a stone-like mass on solidifying. It needs water which makes it solid. What’s more, Steel is a hard, solid dim, or a somewhat blue dark combination of iron with carbon and typically different components, utilized as an auxiliary and manufacturing material.

1. Quality: Steel structures are stiffer, more grounded, tougher and more steady than concrete and timber structures. The solidarity to the weight proportion of steel is additionally high. So no matter how huge the general structure is, the steel areas will be little and lightweight, in contrast to other structural materials.
2. Recycle value: Recycle and reuse are progressively adaptable for the parts of steel structure than the concrete and timber structures.

Why is partial safety factor used?

25.4.3 Partial safety factors – In general, limit state design makes use of the concept of design strengths and design loads, obtained by applying partial safety factors and other factors such as the combination factors to characteristic or representative values of strengths or loads.

• In exceptional cases, it may be appropriate to determine design values directly.
• However, the values should be chosen to correspond to at least the same degree of reliability implied in the Eurocodes.
• In these calculations, it is assumed that the load and strength variables are normally distributed – see Volume 4, Chapter 10 on Statistics.

Partial safety factors are used to take account of: • possible unfavourable deviations of the characteristic values • possible inaccurate modelling of the characteristic values • uncertainties in the assessment of the effects of actions, geometric properties and resistance model Combination factors are used when actions are combined to take account of the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of the most unfavourable values of several independent actions.

Combination values may be used for the verification of ultimate limit states and irreversible limit states. In particular, design strength values are obtained by dividing the characteristic strength value by a partial safety factor γ m appropriate to that material and the particular limit state, that is: Design strength = characteristic strength / γ m Ideally, the characteristic values of an action are the values with an accepted probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure and are determined from the mean and standard deviation as for the characteristic strength described above.

However, due to the lack of statistical data, it is not yet possible to express direct load actions in this manner. In practice, the so-called characteristic loads are the values which are designated as such. These are generally the actual service loads that the structure is designed to carry and can be thought of as the maximum loads which are not to be exceeded during the life of the structure.

The Eurocodes considers the characteristic value of an action to be its main representative value. In statistical terms, the characteristic loads have a 95 per cent probability of not being exceeded. The Eurocodes also refer to mean, upper or lower characteristic action values or nominal action values (for cases where a statistical distribution is not known).

The variability of permanent actions is in general small, in which case a single characteristic value is sufficient for structural calculation purposes. However, if the variability of permanent actions is not small, upper and lower characteristic values will have to be used appropriately.

However, in certain situations, for example, where stability is being considered, it may be more appropriate to use the lower minimum characteristic load value given by G k = G m − 1.64 s The structural design engineer must also take account of load actions which are caused by accidents, water, currents, wavers and tides, where relevant.

1. Having obtained the characteristic loads, the design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by partial safety factors for the appropriate loading conditions.
2. Partial safety factors range in magnitude from 1.0 to 1.4 depending on: • the load combination, that is, − permanent and variable − permanent and wind − permanent and variable and wind • ultimate or serviceability limit state • loading is adverse or beneficial for the loading case.

The full implementation of the verification rules required by the Eurocodes can be fairly involved, however, it should be noted that the use of a simplified verification approach is permitted, where appropriate. To determine the behaviour of the concrete structure, EC2 permits the use of elastic analysis without redistribution or with limited redistribution as well as plastic and non-linear methods of analysis.

• By using the elastic method of analysis, the designer assumes that the structure behaves in an ideal linear elastic manner, that is, that all structural deformations are proportional to the loads acting on the structure or structural elements.
• At relatively low load levels, it may be assumed that concrete structures behave in a linear elastic manner.

However, at realistic load levels, concrete as a material does not behave in the ideal elastic manner assumed. Concrete as a material exhibits non-linear characteristics, that is, the load deformation profile of concrete is not linear. And so the non-linear plastic method of analysis should be used for ultimate limit state (that is, strength) design while the other methods are suitable for both serviceability and relevant ultimate limit state calculations.

What are the partial safety factor applied to steel and concrete in LSM of columns?

Assumptions –

1. The plain section remains plane before and after bending; these assumptions ensure that the strain diagram is linear.
2. At the time of failure, the maximum strain in concrete at the topmost fiber will be 0.0035
3. The stress-strain curve for the concrete is parabolic up to the strain of 0.002, and stress will be constant up to the strain of 0.0035
4. The tensile strength of concrete below the neutral axis is ignored; it says that the tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
5. Maximum strain in steel at the time of failure should be greater than f y /1.15E s + 0.002
6. The safety factor for concrete is 1.5, and the partial safety factor for steel is considered 1.15 for designing concrete structures.

What is the partial safety factor for reinforcement?

Material Partial Factors in Eurocode 2 To calculate the design strength of a material, the characteristic strength (above which 95% of samples are expected) is divided by a material partial factor. The ‘standard’ material partial factors are: γ s = 1.15 for reinforcement and γ c = 1.5 for concrete (EC2 § 2.4.2.4); these correspond to a “normal level of workmanship and inspection”.

If the quality control system can reduce deviations of the concrete cross-section and the reinforcement location to those shown in Table A.1 then γ s can be reduced to 1.10

Table A.1 Reduced deviations Note: The value of γ s, red1 for use in a country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended value is 1.1.

If γ s is reduced to 1.10 and the ‘coefficient of variation’ of the concrete strength can be reduced to 10%, then γ c can be reduced to 1.4 Further reductions to γ s and γ c are possible if deviations can be further reduced – these require maximum permitted deviations to be explicitly included in design calculations

Quality control As stated above, reducing material partial factors is premised on geometric and concrete strength control in excess of that deemed “normal”. This requires a quality control system capable of delivering and recording these outcomes and therefore the agreement and support of the concrete contractor.

Precast production environments and processes may lend themselves more readily to such controls. The contractor must understand why the quality control is required and be confident it can be delivered. This can be achieved by engagement during the design process or by explicit inclusion in relevant Employer’s Requirements and tender documents.

Material, carbon and cost savings potential Columns with reduced material partial factors have been deployed on projects in the UK. These have achieved significant reductions in steel area, leading to a reduction in column embodied carbon and column cost.

Designs not limited by strength, but instead minimum detailing / robustness / deflection / etc. requirements will result in lesser, or even no, savings. Note that – instead of reinforcement reduction – material partial factor reduction could be used to slightly reduce overall concrete dimensions; this results in much less cost and carbon saving and more congested (hence less buildable) elements.

Deployment checklist

Assess opportunity for significant material savings – which elements are predominantly strength-governed / what proportion of structure are these Engage with contractor to explain aspiration, work out level of quality control regime achievable, how to deploy and assess wider impacts Agree on maximum deviations and include in design to reduce material partial factors Monitor quality controls and measure savings

References British Standards Institution (2008) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – general rules and rules for buildings, London: BSI

What is the difference between safety factor and partial safety factor?

The main difference between a Factor of Safety and a Partial Safety Factor is that a FOS is used to determine the level of safety provided by a structure/material, while a PSF takes into account variations in actual loading conditions from those assumed in the design.

What is the formula for the factor of safety of concrete?

Factor of safety=Ultimate Load (Strength)/Allowable Load (Stress) – As understood from the above equation the allowable stress is always less than the ultimate failure stress. Hence, the factor of safety is always greater than 1. The ultimate stress for brittle material is considered as ultimate tensile strength and for ductile material is considered as yield strength.

What is the factor of safety for steel construction?

Partial safety factors for steel and concrete – As per the limit state of collapse, the partial safety factor of steel is 1.15, So the design stress for steel is : f y γ m = f y 1.15 = 0.87 f y For concrete the compressive strength of the material is 67 percentage of the characteristic strength of concrete in cube testing.

• As per IS 45:2000, the partial safety factor is 1.5 for concrete.
• So the design stress of concrete is : 0.67 f c k γ m = 0.67 f c k 1.5 = 0.446 f c k The partial safety factor for steel is less than that of concrete.
• As steel is manufactured under a control manner in steel plants.
• It will have a good quality check, than that of concrete.

Further, in case of concrete we compute the characteristic strength using the test results on 150 mm standard cubes. But the concrete in the structure has different sizes. To take the size effect into account, it is assumed that the concrete in the structure develops a strength of 0.67 times the characteristic strength of cubes.

What is the factor of safety for compressive strength of concrete?

The permissible compressive stress in concrete is taken as 0.67 f ck and a partial factor of safety of 1.5 is applied to it. So, final stress comes out to be 0.45 f ck. For design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete is assumed to be 0.67 times the characteristic strength of concrete.

What is the symbol for the partial safety factor for concrete?

Partial Safety Factor for Installation ( γ 2 ) – This safety factor depends on the safety quality of the installation;

High Installation Safety = 1.0 Normal Installation Safety = 1.2 Low but Acceptable Installation Safety = 1.4

For mechanical bolts this factor will be given by the manufacturer assuming that the fastener is installed to a good standard in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. For cast in bolts this can generally be taken as 1.0 so long as they are installed to a good standard in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Why is concrete better than steel?

On the other hand, Steel’s discovery as a building material isn’t quite as old-it wasn’t widely used in construction until the mid-19th century due to its challenging manufacturing process. In the 1850s, new methods sped up steel production and it quickly gained fame as a strong and durable building material.

1. Over the next 150 years, steel’s popularity has continued to grow, and now, along with concrete, it’s one of the most widely used structural materials.
2. So, which of these materials is more suitable for your project? If you are contemplating whether to use concrete or steel as your project’s primary building material, you have several factors to consider.

Both are equally worthy structural materials. Concrete costs more, but arguably offers better overall performance. To understand which material suits your project better, you must know how they compare in strength, durability, fire resistance, sustainability, and, of course, cost.1.

• Strength Compressive strength is a material’s capacity to withstand a crushing force.
• In a building, the compressive strength of slabs, beams, columns and the foundation allows these elements to resist the building’s vertical loads without sustaining damage.
• Tensile strength is a material’s resistance to failure when stretched.

A beam’s ability to resist vertical loads is an example of tensile strength, as it stops its underside from elongating and cracking when a load is applied on top. Shear failure is caused by two unaligned forces acting on a building in different directions and typically occurs during an earthquake or due to strong winds.

Shear strength is a material’s capacity to resist this type of failure. Concrete has excellent compressive strength, but is very brittle, and fractures easily under tension. To counter this weakness, reinforcing bars made of a tension-resisting material are embedded into it. These bars are typically steel, although composite options are also available.

In reinforced concrete, the overall strength comes from the concrete’s compressive strength and the tensile strength of steel rebars. Vertical bars running along the length of the structural member are tied with shorter, perpendicular bars called stirrups, these stirrups provide the shear strength.

1. Steel’s tensile strength is one of its best-selling features, but skillfully designed steel buildings offer equal overall strength to that of their reinforced concrete counterparts.
2. Sound structural design is key to achieving sufficient compressive, tensile, and shear strength in a steel structure.2.

Durability Durability is the degree to which a material can weather its surroundings. Both reinforced concrete and steel can last a long time without deteriorating if they’re fine-tuned to their settings. Properly adapted, reinforced concrete endures freeze-thaw cycles, chemicals, seawater, moisture, solar radiation, and abrasion.

• Because it’s inorganic, concrete doesn’t suffer from vermin attacks.
• More importantly, it doesn’t burn or melt.
• But despite its high durability, reinforced concrete hides a potential flaw – the same corrosion-prone steel reinforcement that makes it stronger.
• Rusting rebar loses its bond with the surrounding concrete and creates iron oxide, which expands, resulting in tensile stresses and eventual deterioration.

Although concrete’s natural alkalinity reduces rebar corrosion, further protection may be needed for reinforced concrete exposed to seawater or large quantities of deicing salt. Epoxy-coated, stainless steel, or composite rebar work well for this purpose.

• Structural steel is as susceptible to corrosion as rebar and also requires protection.
• Paint, powder coating, sacrificial layers, and corrosion inhibiting chemicals are all methods that can eliminate or limit corrosive damage to structural steel.3.
• Fire Resistance Reinforced concrete’s composition makes it essentially inert and thus noncombustible, while its low rate of heat transfer prevents fire from spreading between spaces.

That said, both the concrete and the steel reinforcement can lose their strength once exposed to high temperatures for a long time. Depending on the type of aggregate used, concrete may start to lose its compressive strength at temperatures between 800°F and 1,200°F.

1. Studies show that lightweight concrete has the best resistance to fires thanks to its insulating properties and a poorer rate of heat transfer.
2. Structural steel is less resistant to fire than reinforced concrete.
3. It begins to lose its strength at temperatures over 550°F and retains only 50% of its room temperature yield strength at 1,100°F.

A variety of methods can slow the rate of temperature rise in the structural steel elements of a building. These may include fire-resistive coatings, barriers, cooling systems, concrete encasement, and active measures, such as sprinklers.4. Sustainability Both concrete and steel offer environmental benefits when used in construction.

About 85% of all steel used in the world eventually gets recycled. It only makes sense, given the abundance of scrap metal and the easy recycling process. Besides reducing the demand for newly mined resources, steel recycling consumes only a third of the energy to that consumed during steel production.

Concrete also boasts several sustainable features. Most of it originates in relative proximity to the construction site, curtailing the amount of energy needed for shipping. After demolition, it can be recycled to produce gravel, aggregate or paving materials for roadway construction, erosion control, landscaping, oceanic reef restoration, and other tasks.

Uncontaminated concrete may be turned into aggregate for new mixes. Recycling concrete has many environmental benefits. It keeps rubble out of landfills, cuts down construction waste, and replaces gravel and aggregates that would otherwise be mined and shipped.5. Cost Reinforced concrete tends to be a costlier alternative to structural steel.

The labor and materials involved in placing formwork and rebar, pouring concrete, and ensuring that it cures properly, can comprise a significant chunk of the total costs. That said, concrete prices are relatively stable. Since 2000, prices for various concrete products have grown steadily with the rate of inflation, and this is an important factor to keep in mind when pricing projects planned for the distant future.

• Despite the higher cost, concrete’s strength, durability, and fire resistance don’t go unnoticed by insurance underwriters.
• Typically, insurance companies give concrete structures higher safety rankings and lower premiums on their policies.
• Steel is cheaper than concrete and faster to erect, but comes with a longer lead time.

Due to its lower fire resistance, insurance premiums for steel structures tend to be higher. Steel prices are notoriously volatile, and the last two decades paint a chaotic picture, After peaking in the early months of 2008, they entered a downward spiral with the Great Recession.

Ten more years of ups and downs, and steel spiked once more in 2018. Now in a buyer’s market, they are falling but some experts expect them to recover later in the year. Such price fluctuations present a major budgeting challenge and this is likely to continue given the current global economic instability.

Design Everest Can Help If you’re not sure whether steel or concrete is more suitable for your building, we can help. Our engineers will assess the variables that impact your project and propose a cost-effective solution that’s customized to your design intent.

Why is concrete structure better than steel?

4. Durability – Durability means the extent to which construction materials can endure its surroundings. Generally, concrete and steel can last a very long time without any significant deterioration if used accurately. Reinforced concrete can easily withstand solar radiation, seawater, excessive moisture and abrasion.

Which is stronger between steel and concrete?

Steel vs. Concrete: Which Is Stronger? – All factors considered, steel is stronger and just generally a better option than concrete in most scenarios. Topping the list of reasons is steel’s ability to withstand higher tensile loads and compressive loads than reinforced concrete.

Why is steel used over concrete?

The steel provides all the tensile strength where concrete is in tension, as in beams and slabs; it supplements the compressive strength of concrete in columns and walls; and it provides extra shear strength over and above that of concrete in beams.

Why does steel rust in concrete?

The Role of Chloride Ions – Exposure of reinforced concrete to chloride ions is the primary cause of premature corrosion of steel reinforcement, The intrusion of chloride ions, present in deicing salts and seawater, into reinforced concrete can cause steel corrosion if oxygen and moisture are also available to sustain the reaction. The risk of corrosion increases as the chloride content of concrete increases. When the chloride content at the surface of the steel exceeds a certain limit, called the threshold value, corrosion will occur if water and oxygen are also available. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) studies found that a threshold limit of 0.20 percent total (acid-soluble) chloride by weight of cement could induce corrosion of reinforcing steel in bridge decks (Clear 1976).

However, only water-soluble chlorides promote corrosion; some acid-soluble chlorides may be bound within aggregates and, therefore, unavailable to promote corrosion. Work at the FHWA (Clear 1973) found that the conversion factor from acid-soluble to water-soluble chlorides could range from 0.35 to 0.90, depending on the constituents and history of the concrete.

Arbitrarily, 0.75 was chosen, resulting in a water-soluble chloride limit of 0.15 percent by weight of cement. Although chlorides are directly responsible for the initiation of corrosion, they appear to play only an indirect role in the rate of corrosion after initiation.

What is the steel factor in concrete?

Steel calculation for footing formation : – to measure the length, width, and thickness of the footing in metres. Then, multiply those measurements together to get the cubic metre volume of the beam. To calculate the amount of steel needed for the footing in kilograms, multiply the volume of concrete footing by 0.5% and the density of steel (7850 kg/m3 ).

For example, to calculate the quantity of steel in a footing having length, width and thickness of one footing as 3m × 3m × 0.3m. As per the thumb rule steel quantity needed in the formation of footing or foundation should be 0.5% of total volume of concrete. The calculated volume of the concrete with the above mentioned dimensions will be 3m × 3m × 0.3m = 2.7 m3 To calculate the steel quantity in footing as 5% of volume of concrete 0.005% x 7850 x 2.7 = 106 kg.

: How to calculate quantity of steel in slab, column, beam and footing

What is the factor of safety for steel and concrete in working stress method?

Free 20 Questions 40 Marks 25 Mins Concept: As per clause no: 36.4.2.1 of IS 456-200, When assessing the strength of a structure or structural member for the limit state of collapse. The value of the partial safety factor(γ mo ) should be taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.

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What is the factor of safety for steel construction?

Partial safety factors for steel and concrete – As per the limit state of collapse, the partial safety factor of steel is 1.15, So the design stress for steel is : $$ \frac } } = \frac } = 0.87 f_ $$ For concrete the compressive strength of the material is 67 percentage of the characteristic strength of concrete in cube testing.

1. As per IS 45:2000, the partial safety factor is 1.5 for concrete.
2. So the design stress of concrete is : $$ \frac } } = \frac } = 0.446 f_ $$ The partial safety factor for steel is less than that of concrete.
3. As steel is manufactured under a control manner in steel plants.
4. It will have a good quality check, than that of concrete.

Further, in case of concrete we compute the characteristic strength using the test results on 150 mm standard cubes. But the concrete in the structure has different sizes. To take the size effect into account, it is assumed that the concrete in the structure develops a strength of 0.67 times the characteristic strength of cubes.

What is the factor of safety of concrete material?

Material Properties Material Properties of BS 8110 BS 8110 Part 01 1997 gives charts that can be used when designing from first principles. Stress-strain relationships for Concrete, reinforcement and pre-stressing steel are given in the code. The following figure shows the concrete stress-strain relationship. According to the above diagram, the maximum strain that concrete can bear is 0.0035 and the maximum stress depends on the grade of the concrete. In addition maximums, concrete stress depends on the material safety factor which is 1.5. Hence, maximum concrete stress becomes 0.45fcu. The above figure is used for finding concrete stresses and strains when we do the design with the first principles. The following figure shows the stress-strain relationship of the reinforcement steel. According to the above figure, we can see that the stress-strain relationship has simplified a level that we can understand easily. The maximum stress of the reinforcement steel has given as yield strength divided by the material safety factor which is 1.05 according to the BS 8110 (click here for more information). Figure 2.3 of BS 8110 is used when we design pre-stressing beams. Especially when we design beams with different shapes, we do the design with first principles. In such situations, we have to use the above curve for the design.In addition, material strengths can be enhanced when the strain rate is very high.

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